Explaining the relevance and importance of mentoring and counselling Essay

Explaining the relevance and importance of mentoring and counselling roles in the workplace - Essay Example It is a way in which an affirmative change in the employees are brought about and thereby transfer of valuable knowledge takes place from the mentor or the guide to the particular employee. Both Companies and their management find that this method is extremely favourable for the employees in terms of career growth (Robbins, 2003, p.56). Thus every organisation tries to implement this process in their day to day operations. In every workplace, the management feels that it is necessary for the employees to boost their potential and enhance their skills so that they can deliver better performance and can in turn increase the productivity of the company. It often happens that the employees have a lot of hidden potential. It is just that they need to be upgraded with certain skills. Often they have to be groomed according to the organisation culture and several issues relating to performance needs to be solved by the management. If the management feels that a particular employee requires this kind of grooming or training his areas have to be assessed and the company would recommend him for mentoring programme. The mentors would generally be someone from the managers or the supervisors of any team who would have prior experience about the work and how it should be done. Each department may also have a special coach delegated for that department. Differences between Coaching and Mentoring Applications of Coaching and mentoring are varied over different areas of business. Though the goals of both coaching and mentoring are the same that is to maximise the potentials of the employees for the benefit of the organisation, yet there is a subtle difference between the two. The chief aim of coaching is to improve the performance of the employees. The final performance is of utmost importance. On the other hand, mentoring is more inclined to grooming of an individual in a personalised way and it is more inclined towards personality development of the individual. The person wh o coaches a team has a definite agenda in his mind while undertaking the process (Bachkirova, Jackson and Clutterbuck, 2011, p.187). The mentor on the other hand would behave like a facilitator who would mould the individual in the way he wants to but there is no specific agenda that the person will remain confined to. Coaching in a workplace is related more to productivity at work and the career growth of the employees. Mentoring on the other hand stresses more on self reflection of the individual employees. Hence the bonding with the mentor is even better defined. The duty of coaching is generally assigned by the organisation to someone who holds much a higher position like a manager. The mentor is someone who would be able to influence the mentee in a deeper way and the person who is being mentored has to treat the person as a guide and have to have a personal acceptance in the matter. Coaching is provided to the employees so that enhances in individual performance would help in the growth and the development of the organisation. The mentor often looks forward for feedback from the employees which may contribute to the development of the employee as well. Hence the mentor has a scope of getting personal returns as well. There is a prospect of mutual knowledge exchange in this context. The system of coaching is mainly applicable to a team development in an office and a handful of people may come under the

Factory Farming is cruel to animals Essay Example for Free

Factory Farming is cruel to animals Essay It is so amazing that most Americans are so caring of the animals they keep as pets, and yet are so unconcerned about the upbringing or disposition of the ones they cook for dinner. It is amazing how some Americans see themselves as sympathizing folks and animal lovers until they reflect on what they just ate. Society loves animals as pets, adopts them as extensions of their families, spend ridiculous amounts of money on them, and mourn their deaths. How is it that these same Americans are so indifferent towards the ones they cook for dinner (Arora, 2013)? Factory farms dominate U. S. food production, employing practices that severely abuse animals, puts an enormous strain on our natural resources, and threatens the Nation’s health. Factory farms provide cheap meat that is more affordable to more people, utilizes less real-estate, creates the avenue for more farming jobs to stay in the U.S, and allows cheap fast food to exist. These are really great advantages of the factory farming industry, but come at a tremendous cost. Factory farming puts an enormous strain on our natural resources. According to a report in Farmsanctuary (2013), the factory farming industry puts incredible strain on our natural resources. The extreme amount of waste created by raising so many animals in one place pollutes our land, air, and water (para. 2). Unmanaged and untreated waste that accumulates from combined animal operations is contributing to emissions that are rapidly warming the planet, creating water pollution, and dead zones in our oceans and lakes. The environments in which these animals are confined are severely contaminated and present a significant source for increased infection in their animals, especially poultry, their by-products and eventually humans (O’Brien, 2001). The preservation of our natural resources is important to our survival. If the accumulation of waste and byproducts are allowed to continue due to substandard practices of factory farming industries, our natural resources will continue to diminish. This depletion will inevitably contribute to or provide a catalyst for other problems like issues with our health. When it comes to our health, Americans are very concerned. They may turn a blind eye to the environmental fall-out caused by Factory farming, but they will raise their concerns about the health risks. Diseases like Salmonella, Mad cow, and breathing problems like asthma are increased because of the effects of factory farming on our natural resources. There is also an increase of antibiotic-resistant diseases being identified due to the substandard their practices. In the report from Farmsanctuary (2013), Residents of rural communities surrounding factory farms report high incidents of illness, and their property values are often lowered by their proximity to industrial farms. To counteract the health challenges presented by overcrowded, stressful, unsanitary living conditions, antibiotics are used extensively on factory farms, which can create drug-resistant bacteria and put human health at risk (para. 3). The consistent contact of factory farmed animals with these health hazards, combined with the abuse of antibiotics and growth hormones, as well as other drugs to boost productivity, greatly increases the possibility of infection and disease in its consumers. The byproducts created by theses practices pollute our drinking water and the land that these same farmers plant crops, further exasperating farming conditions by producing unhealthy crops that increase the health risk of consumers. If society only scratches the surface of life down on the factory farm, they will see that diseases like Mad Cow disease may be the tip of the iceberg. In a range of areas, from feeding regimes, to animal housing, to the use of drugs in the pursuit of productivity, human health may be threatened by factory farming (O’brien, 2001). The continued accumulation of waste, combined with the health risks that have become natural by products of Factory farming have become a significant threat to society. If something is not done to alleviate or significantly reduce these effects, the Nation may be on a path of self destruction through overzealous production of food to satisfy consumer consumption, meet consumer demands, and boost financial statuses of farmers in the industry. The main aspect that can be immediately addressed to improve Factory farming living is the living conditions in these factories. The overcrowding of animals at these farms creates a frustrated work environment that fosters accepted abuse, which in-turn amplifies the waste and health conditions. This vicious cycle perpetuates an issue that will inevitably lead to issues of epidemic proportion. A report by Long (2013), stated that, Chickens are crowded so tightly together that they can barely turn around, never seeing daylight or eating a single blade of grass. Beef cattle are finished in huge feedlots, standing all day in their own manure, again with no access to the fresh grass that has been their natural diet for thousands of years. (para. 1). These conditions may not sound so detrimental to some, but combined with the abuse they endure, the conditions are unbelievable and inhumane. Here are some examples given by Editorial Today (2008) on animal cruelty at these farms, Cows are still being forced to be cannibalistic, as they are fed blood, bone meal, and other miscellaneous aspects of other cows (no brain matter, but most everything else)†¦.. [ ] Veal calves are crammed in pens so small that they can’t move their limbs†¦..[ ] Animals are put in semi-darkness which in some cases, cause unbearable conditions (para. 7). And for the cultivation of â€Å"Foie gras† (a delicacy), farmers force-feed ducks and geese an unnatural amount and type of food until their livers become diseased and enlarge up to ten times their normal, healthy size (etoday, 2008). Finally, there are everyday, routine mutilations that are being conducted all in the name of productivity. Mutilations like castration, de-beaking, de-toeing, tail docking, and others. All of which are executed without any form of anesthesia. Why has this transformation happened and is allowed to continue one may ask? Well, the answer is simply to accommodate the mass meat industry and to satisfy the demand of a carnivorous society. It is the twentieth century ideology of modern economics and the assembly line, turning farm animals into number-tagged bodies to be fattened, disinfected, and processed as quickly and cheaply as possible (Arora 2013). Because of this demand, large numbers of animals are being raised in extreme confinement. They are regarded as commodities to be exploited for profit, not humane animals, able to feel pain and suffering, and possessing a soul. Factory farmed animals are bred to grow unnaturally fast and large for the purpose of maximizing meat, egg, and milk production for the food industry. Their bodies cannot support this growth, which results in debilitating and painful conditions and deformities (Farmsanctuary, 2013). Many in society are now getting their voices heard as they ask the question, â€Å"Isn’t there a better way to produce food?† If the practice of mass meat holocaust is allowed to continue at these Factory farms, there are several aspects of society that will continue to degrade. The significant contribution to diseases and natural resource depletion that taints the water, soil, and air of the external environment will perpetuate. These contaminants will continue to finds it’s way into human bodies as chemical pollutants (antibiotics, pharmaceuticals in the meat and our drinking water) and greatly affect other systems with consequences like birth defects and reduced life expectancy. And there is tradition. There natural passing down of tradition from generation to generation will be lost. All the first-hand knowledge and experience in the farming industry will silently be erased due to the limited raising, handling, basic interaction of livestock and farm animals in the modernity of the factory industry. Generations of farmers will grow up without the first-hand experience and knowledge of farming and the art will inevitably be lost. Several proactive groups and other agencies in government continue to advocate the reduction of inhumane and unhealthy practices in the factory farming industry at a vigorous rate. Yet consumers continue to partake, invest, and expand the factory farming industry. How is it possible that even after the education of the public on how animals are treated, most of us them still decide to continue the patronization of factory-farmed meat? An article in editorial today gave one answer when it stated, â€Å"We might conclude that the price we make animals pay, and the price we pay in sacrificing part of our humanity, are worth the benefits (para. 6).† Could this be true? Society is willfully to turn a blind eye to the cruelty because of the lust for meat? This raises another question, when and where does it end? How far is society will to go, and how much are they willing to sacrifice to receive fast, cheap meat? What will it take to rekindle their capacity for love and stop the abused process of obliteration? There are no easy answers to the myriad of questions. Factory farms continue to dominate U.S. food production, employing practices that severely abuse animals, putting a tremendous amount of strain on natural resources, and threatening the health of the nation with disease. However, there is one thought that has become accepted course of action amongst advocates. Consumers must eliminate or reduce the consumption of non-organic and inhumanely-raised beef, pork, chicken, meat, eggs, and dairy products, as well as farmed fish. Force Factory farmers and the meat industry to rethink their methods of production so that they, along with consumers, do not become the associate authors of a diseased, unsympathetic, cruel, and dying society. Mahatma Gandhi said it best, â€Å"The greatness of a nation and its moral progress can be judged by the way its animals are treated. Does this nation consider itself great? References ARORA, N. (2013). On Eating Animals. Humanist, 73(4), 26-31. Editorial Today. (2008). Hobbies and Interests. Factory Farming Pros and Cons. Retrieved from: http://www.streetdirectory.com/etoday/factory-farming-pros-and-cons-awwlc.html Farmsanctuary. (2013). Farming. Retrieved from: http://www.farmsanctuary.org/learn/ factoryfarming/ Long, C. (2000, Nov). Factory farming is fouling our food. Organic Gardening, 47, 12. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/203726517?accountid=32521 OBrien, T., Adock, M., Rifkin, J., Pickard, B. M. (2001, 06). Factory farming and human health. The Ecologist, , 30-34. Retrieved from

Physician Assisted Suicide Case study :: essays research papers

Diane: A Case of Physician Assisted Suicide Diane was a patient of Dr. Timothy Quill, who was diagnosed with acute myelomonocytic leukemia. Diane overcame alcoholism and had vaginal cancer in her youth. She had been under his care for a period of 8 years, during which an intimate doctor-patient bond had been established. It was Dr. Quill’s observation that â€Å"she was an incredibly clear, at times brutally honest, thinker and communicator.† This observation became especially cogent after Diane heard of her diagnosis. Dr. Quill informed her of the diagnosis, and of the possible treatments. This series of treatments entailed multiple chemotherapy sessions, followed by a bone marrow transplant, accompanied by an array of ancillary treatments. At the end of this series of treatments, the survival rate was 25%, and it was further complicated in Diane’s case by the absence of a closely matched bone-marrow donor. Diane chose not to receive treatment, desiring to spend whatever time she had left outside of the h ospital. Dr. Quill met with her several times to ensure that she didn’t change her mind, and he had Diane meet with a psychologist with whom she had met before. Then Diane complicated the case by informing Dr. Quill that she be able to control the time of her death, avoiding the loss of dignity and discomfort which would precede her death. Dr. Quinn informed her of the Hemlock Society, and shortly afterwards, Diane called Dr. Quinn with a request for barbiturates, complaining of insomnia. Dr. Quinn gave her the prescription and informed her how to use them to sleep, and the amount necessary to commit suicide. Diane called all of her friends to say goodbye, including Dr. Quinn, and took her life two days after they met. This is a fascinating case because it presents the distinction between a patient’s right to refuse treatment and a physician’s assistance with suicide. Legally, Diane possessed the right to refuse treatment, but she would have faced a debilitating, painful death, so the issue of treatment would be a moot point. It would be moot in the sense that Diane seemed to refuse treatment because the odds were low, even if she survived she would spend significant periods of time in the hospital and in pain, and if she didn’t survive she would spend her last days in the hospital. If Diane were to merely refuse treatment and nothing else (as the law prescribes) than she would not have been able to avoid the death which she so dearly wanted to avoid.

August and December

The time allocated for teaching and learning is a factor influencing pupils' academic performance. There are three school terms every year with holidays in between in the months of April, August and December.Research has shown that majority of schools start learning after the first week of the school term. This indicates that there is a lot of time wastage before learning begins. Besides,most schools loose many teaching/ learning hours at the beginning of the term. This wastage leads to less work being covered and syllabus not being completed on time hence contributing to poor performance in KCPE examinations. b. Adequacy of Learning Resources: The adequacy and use of teaching and learning materials affects the effectiveness of a teacher's lesson.Teaching and learning esources enhances understanding of abstract ideas and improves performance. Adequate learning resources like text books,improvised weather instruments,relevant child friendly library books, wall maps and the exercise bo oks are of paramount importance. This makes learning easier of subjects like Social Studies very abstract to the pupils. Further still,it has been proven that school facilities have a direct effect on teaching and learning. Text books enable the pupils to follow the teacher's sequence of presentation and aids in understanding of lessons. . School Administration :The quality of school administration plays a vital role in academic performance as it is concerned with pupils, teachers, rules, regulations and policies that govern the school system. In analyzing the efficiency of school administration, the following aspects ought to be considered: Frequency of staff meetings Frequency of checking teachers' schemes of work and lesson plans Adequacy of teachers' prior preparation Frequency of class observation by the head teacher. Few staff meetings may lead to less co-ordination of curriculum implementation.This an lead to less monitoring and reporting of the progress of the schools activi ties to the teachers . Frequency of Checking Teachers' Schemes of work: The responsibility of checking the professional documents like teachers' schemes of work and lesson plans lies in the hands of the head teacher. This may be done in person or he may delegate to the deputy head teacher or the senior teacher. Preparation and use of schemes of work by the teachers enhances sequential teaching and results to improved achievement.Checking of teachers schemes of work should be done frequently to allow the head teacher monitor curriculum implementation. Frequency ot Checking the Teachers' Lessons Plans :Teacners' lesson plan is a protessional document prepared by teachers for the purpose of presentation of a lesson. The teacher indicates whether the lesson has been taught and objectives achieved; if the lesson is not taught, then the teacher indicates the reason why and when he intends to cover it; if the lesson objectives are not achieved, the teacher plans for remedial lesson in orde r to make the concept understood by the pupils.Head teachers should monitor lesson plan preparation frequently; otherwise it may lead to poor erformance. Adequacy of Teachers' Prior Preparation: Adequate prior preparation before a teacher goes to class leads to good performance by the pupils. This promotes sequential presentation of concepts by the teacher to the learners. Always, prior preparation by the teachers leads to systematic delivery of concepts to pupils and enhances performance. Observation of Classes by Head teachers: One of the roles of the head teacher is to carry out internal supervision of curriculum implementation in his/her school.This involves physical observation of teachers' lessons in progress. One of the head teachers' roles is regular class supervision in order to promote curriculum goals. Failure to do so may lead to poor performance. 2. Teacher-Based Factors These are the factors within the teachers that could hinder or promote academic performance of pupil s in their schools. The following are some of the aspects of teacher based factors: Teachers' commitment Teachers' frequency of absenteeism Teachers' motivation Teachers' work load.Teachers' Commitment Level: Good performance is as a result of high commitment levels by the teachers. Studies shows that teachers who lack enthusiasm are unable o teach effectively, making pupils not to learn well. Frequency of Absenteeism among Teachers: When teachers absent themselves from school frequently, pupils go unattended and do not do well in examinations. Absenteeism by teachers reduces the amount of instructional time and this result in the syllabus not being completed. This in return results to lower output of work by the pupils.Teachers' Motivation:A World Bank Report (1986) acknowledges that teacher satisfaction is generally related to achievement as satisfied teachers would concentrate hence enhancing academic performance of their pupils. Teacher Turn-over Rate:lf the teacher turn-over ra te is high then it can contribute to poor performance in examinations. According to Schneider (2003) high teacher turn over forces schools to devote attention, time and financial resources attracting replacement of teachers. Teachers' Workload: This is the number of lessons teachers take per week.If teachers are not overloaded their output in terms performance should be good. 3. PUPlLS BASED FACTORS These are the factors within the pupils that could enhance or hinder their academic performance. The following are some aspects under pupil-based factors: 1. Pupils' language use 2. Pupils' rate of absenteeism 3. Pupils' lateness to school. Pupils' Language Use: Pupils who interact using English language tend to understand it better and do well in examinations as all examinations apart from Swahili are written in English language.It is equally true that leaner who also interact well using Swahili language will pass the Swahili exam. Therefore,both languages must be encouraged in equal me asure by the teachers,parents and the larger community. Pupils' Frequency of Absenteeism: These is the aspect of how frequent pupils absent themselves from school. When pupils absent themselves from school, they tend to lose many concepts and definitely may not do well in exams. The effect of absenteeism and irregular school attendance is that materials taught are difficult to understand when studied on one's own.Continued loss of classes results to loss of content and knowledge. Class assignments,exercises,homework and holiday homework would not be properly and correctly done leading to poor performance. 4. Community-Based Factors Community based factors are factors within the community that impede or enhance pupils' academic performance. In analyzing the community based factors, the following aspects can be looked into: a) Parents' Consultation with Teachers:Good performance is realized when parents work in consultation with the teachers in order to understand their children bette r.Studies shows that most often parents do not consult teachers and that most parents were not so much concerned about education of the children. Bogus (2004) indicated that parents' interaction with teachers enables them to know what their children are encountering in school and what could be done to deal with the problems. It would also put pupils on alert and tudy in school as they would know that their parents would inquire about their performance.

Heritage Of India

India is blessed with a vast and rich heritage. One has only to see the various architectural marvels and cultural institutions that dot the geographical expanse of India to glimpse the richness of our heritage.The science and technology of ancient India was quite advanced. Many historians believe that most of the scientific advances believed to have been made in Europe had been achieved centuries ago in India. Such advances covered major fields of human knowledge and activities like mathematics, astronomy, physics, medicine, metallurgy, surgery, fine arts, civil engineering and architecture, shipbuilding, navigation, etc.Indian mathematicians have made important contributions to the study of the decimal number system, zero, negative numbers, arithmetic and algebra. The study of linguistics was initiated by Indian grammarians who began the trend by first attempting to catalogue and codify the rules of Sanskrit. Even today, the main terms for compound analysis are taken from Sanskrit. India is the birthplace of Ayurveda and Yoga; these systems are now finding many followers in the West. India’s rich spiritual tradition has attracted many troubled Westerners, fleeing the materialistic and spiritually empty worlds they inhabit, to her shores, seeking solace and salvation. India’s urban civilization traces its roots to Mahenjodaro and Harappa, now in Pakistan.Their planned urban townships were very advanced for their time. Metallurgy is central to most civilizations. The science of smelting was highly refined and precise in ancient India. As early as the 5th century BC, Herodotus, the eminent Greek historian, noted that iron was used in the arrows used by Indian and Persian soldiers.The idea of the atom is derived from the classification of the material world into five basic elements by Indian philosophers. This classification has been in existence since the Vedic age (c.1500 BC). Indian monuments testify to the different influences in her history â₠¬â€œ Buddhist, Indo-Saracenic, Victorian, Mughal, etc.Classical Indian music and dance have a wide fan following all over the world. Each state has its own art forms which are well documented. Imposing and architecturally splendid temples, mosques and churches embody the diverse religious and cultural influences that have made India unique. Cuisine too is an important part of our heritage.As Indians, we ought to be proud of our rich heritage and strive to preserve it for our descendants by respecting it and ensuring its survival.

Subcultural theories Essay Example

Subcultural theories Essay Example Subcultural theories Essay Subcultural theories Essay Essay Topic: Sociology Subcultural theories examine the behaviour and actions of various groups within society groups with either reject or depart from the traditional norms and views of the majority. These groups are referred to as subcultures, and subcultural theories attempt to explain why these groups most are concerned with youth gangs and gang delinquency engage in deviant acts. Subcultural theories originated in America and in particular the Univeristy of Chicago Sociology Department. Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay at the University studied juvenile crime rates in Chicago and they divided the city up into a series of concentric rings. They then calculated the delinquency rates of in each ring finding that areas with the highest crime rates were those in the centre of the city, with the rates diminishing outwards from the centre. They noted that delinquency was lower in areas of high economic status while it was seen to be high in areas of low economic status. Their studies also found that these findings remained constant over time, notwithstanding successive changes in the nativity and nationality composition of the population1. They therefore came to the conclusion that delinquency-producing factors are inherent in the community2 and are culturally transmitted. They said that what is transmitted is social disorganisation This term referred to an inconsistency of values, attitudes and standards of behaviour. In areas of high economic status, ie. the middle class, there is consistency and uniformity of attitudes and morals, whereas in low economic status areas there is an absence of common values with competing attitudes and standards prevalent instead. Shaw and Mckay state that in the latter situation delinquency has developed as a powerful competing way of life3. There are, therefore, rival values, conventional and non-conventional, and gang and juvenile delinquency is a symptom of this conflict. Another theory to emerge from Chicago is Edwin Sutherland and Donald Cressey s differential association theory. Although not strictly a subcultural theory in the strict definition of the term this theory is so closely related so as to be worthy of consideration. Differential association says that criminal and deviant behaviour is learnt behaviour in the same sense as other behaviour is learnt. It tells us that a person is likely to become a criminal if they are exposed to an excess of definitions favourable to violation of the law over definitions unfavourable to violation of the law4. The effect which these associations have may vary in frequency, duration, priority and intensity. In this process of differential association, Sutherland and Cressey stress that the strongest part of the learning occurs within intimate personal groups and we can see that they are stressing the importance of the peer group, family and friends in the learning process. They also make the point that all the associations which one has in life could be quantified and a mathematical formula reached which would enable us to find out how a person will turn out. Sutherland and Cressey acknowledge however that such a weighing up of associations would be extremely difficult5. Albert Cohens main interest lay in explaining juvenile delinquency, and his major work Delinquent Boys, published in 1955, claimed that a delinquent subculture exists which could explain crime amongst juveniles. He said that when we look at the delinquent subculture we see that it is non-utilitarian, malicious and negativistic6. This, he explains, is because the subculture takes its norms from the wider culture and turns them upside down. Therefore, what the delinquent does is right according to the standards of the subculture because it is wrong according to the standards of wider society. But why do juveniles form or join these subcultures in the first place? Cohen argued that certain sections of youth feel rejected by society and the reason for this is to be found in the great tension and strain in handling the paradoxical many-are-called-but-few-are-chosen nature of schooling7. Those who cannot handle the strain suffer status deprivation and some will seek the collective delinquent subculture as the solution. Mertons8 anomie (strain) theory aims to integrate explanations of a variety of behaviours into a coherent pattern, by seeing them as related ways of coping with the problems by living in modern societies. This theory asserts that where there is a gap between what people want and what they can legitimately achieve, they experience strain. They can adapt to this strain in any of five ways. Conformists do not experience such a gap and are thus not under strain. Innovators adapt to the strain by finding alternative, usually illegitimate, methods of obtaining the goods they want. Ritualists turn adherence of social norms into a goal itself and often join movements that place moral rules above more individual goals, e. g. religious groups. Retreatists see neither the goals nor the means as valid and minimise their participation in normal society. Drug users, dropouts, hippies and priests would all be examples. Rebels are those who declare the social structure illegitimate, and seek to destroy it. A theory of much the same model9 as Cohens is put forward by Cloward and Ohlin. They accepted a similar model of delinquency causation as him but believed that he placed too much emphasis on the school. Cloward and Ohlin draw their theory in part from both Mertons anomie theory and from differential association. They say that crime occurs because of blocked and limited legitimate opportunities and that what type of criminal behaviour results depends on the individuals peer group or gang. They concluded that three types of subculture can result: criminal, conflict or retreatist. Again the importance of the group is emphasised as Cloward and Ohlin use differential association to argue that criminal behaviour is learnt from group relationships. When Lemet (1951) and Becker (1963) first promoted labelling theory, they both argued that no acts are intrinsically deviant; deviance is a moral judgement which is used to label particular acts and those who commit them. Thus social groups can create deviance by making rules whose infraction constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labelling them as outsiders10. The principal strength of these various theories appears to be their superior explanation of juvenile delinquency and crime, such as vandalism, joy-riding and pointless theft, which mainly occurs within juvenile gangs or subcultures. Much of the other criminological explanations of crime largely ignore this group reaction and concentrate solely on the individual. Mertons anomie theory is especially guilty of this and indeed Cohen criticised it for being inapplicable to both juvenile and group crime11. Similarly the biological positivists such as Eysenck look at the cause of crime as purely an individual matter without much concern for group crime. Shaw and McKays theory placed a great emphasis on juvenile crime and delinquency being a group activity delinquency is essentially group behaviour12 and they attempt to explain why people become delinquent and join gangs. They say that in areas of low economic status delinquency is a powerful rival way of life which derives its impelling force in the boys life from the fact that it provides a means of securing economic gain, prestige, and other human satisfactions and is embodied in delinquent groups and criminal organizations, many of which have great influence, power and prestige13. Children are exposed to these values as they are transmitted and passed down from generation to generation as are the techniques for committing offences. In discussing this, Shaw and Mckay give examples of the types of offences whose techniques are passed down, such as jack-rolling and shoplifting crimes which lack a purpose. They strongly emphasise the role of the peer group and they say that in the context of this group crime is regarded as normal, as from the viewpoint of the delinquents immediate social world (the subculture) and the norms associated with that world, he is not necessarily disorganised, maladjusted or antisocial but may be highly organized and well-adjusted14. Cohens explanation of juveniles turning to crime centred upon their frustration at being unable to achieve middle class success and, more specifically, success at school. He says that in the resulting delinquent subculture, delinquents respond as a group and that this response has been worked out by their group over many years. This response is to invert the norms of wider society with the result that the subcultures activities are, as mentioned earlier, non-utilitarian, malicious and negativistic. Indeed, these descriptions of the groups activities explain crimes such as shoplifting (which is non-utilitarian) and vandalism (which is malicious) rather well. Cohen himself says that much gang stealing has no motivation and is in fact stealing for the hell of it and is a valued activity to which attaches glory, prowess and profound satisfaction15 rather than as an activity for gain and profit. Crime is committed because delinquent groups are out for fun and short-term hedonism plays an important part in Cohens account of juvenile group crime. Again, like Shaw and McKay, Cohens theory emphasises the point that from the perspective of the gang themselves, their conduct could be regarded as meaningful. Although subcultural theories give a good explanation of juvenile delinquency and juvenile group crime, the fundamental weakness of these theories stems from precisely this: an overemphasis on the importance of a gang response to crimes. It places far too much emphasis on a group response rather than on individual responses. Notwithstanding the fact that most juvenile crime such as joy-riding is conducted by gangs, these theories fail to explain why crimes such as rape and murder, which are very individualistic, occur. Most of the subcultural theorists, including Shaw and McKay, Cloward and Ohlin, and especially Sutherland and Cressey, stress the significance of the peer group and the associations which one has in life. Sutherland and Cressey say that the values which encourage people to commit crime are learnt along with the techniques to commit crime. But how can this theory explain the crime of passion in which the husband murders his wife when finding her in bed with another man? He may have had no criminal associations in the past, but merely snaps. Compulsive crimes such as this are better explained by biological impulses rather by differential association or subcultural theories. It was mentioned earlier that Sutherland and Cressey stated that all the associations which one has in life can be quantified in order to find out whether a person will become deviant or not. However, as with the example above, this does not account for the honest, hard working businessman who, when his business starts doing badly is forced to commit fraud and other crimes to try and save it. It could certainly be said that he has learnt the techniques through differential association, but where and how does he learn the deviant values and motives? Stemming from this overemphasis on gang/group crime is the very closely related flaw that these theories are overly deterministic. Everyone is seen as being very heavily influenced by their peer group and little consideration is given to individual choice or free will. If, taking Shaw and McKays example, you fall within the centre circle of Chicago you are seen by them as having very little choice as to whether or not you end up in a delinquent gang. The theory of David Matza addresses in part this weakness of subcultural theories. He pointed out that these theories predicted far too much crime and delinquency16. His main theme concerned drift as he considered that delinquents drift in and out of delinquency without committing to either. He also emphasised freedom of choice and free will as important, and by doing so he answers many of the criticisms of the overly deterministic theories of Cohen, Shaw and McKay et al. The role of the subculture or gang is still important as they make such activity more likely by actively promoting it but this does not make deviant behaviour mandatory. The individual still has freedom to choose whether to commit a crime or not and to do so for personal reasons rather that as a group requirement17. The major criticisms of anomie theory are that while it outlines different possibilities for adaption, it does not explain why individuals adopt one or other forms of adaption- retreatism, ritualism etc. It also says nothing about the causes of social inequality and conflict, which is strange given the theorys recognition that inequality and conflict exists is precisely the point at which it has an advantage over functionalism. Labelling theory does not provide an account for why some social groups have the power to label and others do not, nor of why certain acts are declared illegal and others are not. In Beckers view, the theory does not, and need not, explain why some groups or individuals have the power to label, he was only concerned to show that labelling occurs and the consequences of it. There is no consensus about how far how-far a group has to go in having specialised values and norms, or stable membership, or regular activities, to qualify as a sub-culture; nor about the precise meaning of descriptions such as deviant subculture. It is also interesting to note that some studies of subcultures refer back to anomie theory and its concept of adaptation; they thus have the same weaknesses as anomie theory. It can be said that from the principal strength of subcultural theories stems its main weakness. The main theories examined provide us with a through examination of crimes largely ignored by anomie and biological theories namely juvenile crime. In their consideration of the consideration of the main causes of juvenile crime, the role and influence of the gang or group response render the application of these theories to explaining individual crimes, such as murder, irrelevant. Related to this is the fact that these theories also suffer from the flaw of being excessively deterministic. Nevertheless, as an account of why subcultures exist and why juveniles within these subcultures engage in deviant acts, the theories examined succeed this objective. Regardless of whichever theory one tends to adopt for a particular given, each has its own strengths and subsequent weaknesses. In this regard, and despite these problems, the concept of sub-culture amongst young men and women remains seductive.

Lifeline of Rivers essays

Lifeline of Rivers essays The Lifelines of Rivers deals with a wide array of rivers. It also looks at the animals that live and depend on the rivers. Another important aspect covered in this chapter is the pollution and problems we have with the rivers. The first part of the chapter looks at the vital needs served by the rivers. Anything living needs water, and the rivers are the water supply of the earth. The rivers move water from mountains, forests, grasslands, deserts, and lakes all of the way back to the ocean. Our rivers supply around half of our nations drinking water. The riparian or riverfront is what feeds all of the water nourished plants that grow along the rivers. These plants are very important to 70 percent of all land-based wildlife. In North America, there are over 790 species of fish that live in our freshwater that depend on the rivers. Today we have a lot of problems with our rivers. There are unhealthy rivers all over the world. Roughly 40 percent of the streams surveyed failed to meet standards for swimming. Half of our nations streams also failed the biological health test. Due to the Clean Water Act in 1972, most cities and industries have made big steps in trying to reduce pollution. The countries overall water health is poor. A lot of this is due to polluted runoff, farms, chemicals, and the electronic age. Polluted runoff accounts for 78 percent of the pollution. This is very tough to control because it not only deals with the water, but also how we use the land as well. One of our biggest problems today might be the hog business. Due to lobbying by agribusiness and farm organizations, federal laws dont require treatment for the waste they get rid of. The hog waste is 150 times more in volume than human waste and ruins 35,000 miles of river. One of our biggest errors we made when trying to deal with floods is that we went out and built more dams and levees. All these dams and levees do is giv...